Early Dutch Typography

Nationalistic Christian Theology

“From the early printing centers of the Low Countries to the international reputation of Dutch type designers in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Dutch typography is characterized by craftsmanship, readability, experimentation, and a strong relationship among type, graphic design, and Dutch theology.”

DUTCH GOLDEN AGE TYPOGRAPHY can be understood not merely as a period where Amsterdam and Antwerp develop sophisticated typefounding and publishing traditions. It was also a period of typography and printing that highlighted a Christian theological perspective that is too easily dismissed by later Dutch typography.

Dutch typography has had an influence far beyond the relatively small geographic size of the Netherlands. From the early printing centers of the Low Countries to the international reputation of Dutch type designers in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Dutch typography is characterized by craftsmanship, readability, experimentation, and a strong relationship among type, graphic design, and Dutch theology.

Early Printing in the Low Countries (c. 1470–1500)

The Netherlands and Belgium were important centers of European printing almost immediately after Gutenberg. Major early centers included Utrecht, Haarlem, Leuven, Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, and Amsterdam. Dutch and Flemish printers initially used forms derived from Gothic textura, but Roman types increasingly appeared in humanist books. 

A particularly important early figure was Gerard Leeu, who printed in Gouda and later Antwerp. His books demonstrate the transition from manuscript traditions toward increasingly sophisticated typographic production. Gerard or Gheraert Leeu, Leew, (between 1445 and 1450 to1492) printed what is called “incunable.” An incunable or incunabulum (pl.: incunables or incunabula, respectively) is a book or pamphlet printed in the earliest stages of European printing up to about 1500. 

They are distinct from manuscripts, which are documents written by hand. Some authorities on the history of printing include block books from the same time period as incunabula, whereas others limit the term to works printed using movable type. Famous incunabula include two from Mainz, the Gutenberg Bible of 1455 and the Peregrinatio in terram sanctam of 1486, printed and illustrated by Erhard Reuwich, the Nuremberg Chronicle written by Hartmann Schedel and printed by Anton Koberger in 1493, and the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili printed by Aldus Manutius with important illustrations by an unknown artist.

Leeu printed his first liturgical book in May 1477 in his shop in Gouda, where between 1477 and 1484 he produced a total of about 69 books. Besides printing works in Latin and Dutch, he reprinted some of William Caxton’s editions for the English market. The Low Countries also developed a strong tradition of illustrated books, woodcut initials, borders, and ornamental typography.

The Sixteenth Century

The sixteenth century was a special age for Flemish printing, particularly in Antwerp. The central figure was Christophe Plantin (1520–1589), whose printing house became one of Europe’s great publishing establishments.

Christophe Plantin was a French Renaissance humanist and book printer and publisher who resided and worked in Antwerp. He established in Antwerp one of the most prominent publishing houses of his time, the Plantin Press. It played a significant role in making Antwerp a leading center of book publishing in Europe. The publishing house was continued by his successors until 1867. 

His most important work is considered to be the Biblia Regia (King’s Bible), also known as the Plantin Polyglot. There were eight volumes in folio format, meaning only two pages could be printed at one time. The Polyglot Bible has parallel texts in Latin, Greek, Syriac, Aramaic, and Hebrew. This work earned Plantin little profit, but resulted in Philip’s granting him the privilege of printing all Roman Catholic liturgical books. Plantin was concerned over being accused of heresy and being a Protestant sympathizer.

Plantin’s books established a model of typographic refinement that influenced European printing for centuries. Important characteristics included carefully proportioned Roman type, refined italic type, excellent typography and composition, elaborate title pages, woodcut and engraved illustrations, mathematical and scientific books, multilingual printing, and high-quality paper and production. Plantin worked with type designers and punchcutters including Robert Granjon and Claude Garamond’s circle of influence, while developing a distinctive Flemish typographic tradition.

The Dutch Republic As A Reformed Center

The Dutch Republic became an international center of commerce, publishing, cartography, scientific printing, Bible printing, political pamphlets, newspapers, and book production. Amsterdam in particular became a major publishing center. Christoffel van Dyck (1601–1669) was a major Amsterdam punchcutter whose types became associated with Dutch book printing.

His designs were characterized by relatively compact proportions, strong readability, moderate contrast, sturdy serifs, and economical use of space. Van Dyck’s types were particularly influential in Bible and scholarly printing.[1]

After the Dutch Revolt and the establishment of the Dutch Republic, the Dutch Reformed Church became the dominant public Protestant institution. Its theological framework was strongly Calvinist and was codified in documents such as the Belgic Confession (1561), Heidelberg Catechism (1563), and the Canons of Dort (1618–1619).

This environment had much in common with English Puritanism. Both stressed Calvinist theology, an emphasis on Scripture, Covenantal thinking, a strong preaching tradition, Sabbath observance, Church discipline, moral seriousness, and an opposition to Roman Catholicism. English Puritanism reinforced and interacted with existing Dutch Reformed tendencies.

Amsterdam became home to English Separatists, English Baptists, Mennonites, Remonstrants, Lutherans, Jews, various Dutch Calvinist groups, and religious refugees from elsewhere in Europe. This created an environment in which Puritan and Separatist ideas could be printed, debated, and disseminated. Amsterdam consequently became one of Europe’s important centers for Protestant religious publishing.

The relationship between Puritanism and Dutch typography and printing is particularly significant. English religious writers could sometimes publish works in the Netherlands that were difficult to publish openly in England. Dutch printers produced editions of English religious literature and circulated it internationally. This made the Netherlands an important communication hub for English Protestantism.

The connection worked in both directions — England to the Netherlands to a wider Protestant world. English Puritan theology could be transmitted through Dutch presses, while Dutch Reformed theology simultaneously influenced English and Scottish Protestants. This is one reason the Dutch Republic occupies such an important place in the history of Protestant print culture.

There was also a striking similarity between English Puritanism and the Dutch movement known as the Nadere Reformatie, or Further Reformation.

The Further Reformation sought to move beyond merely establishing correct doctrine toward the transformation of individual and communal life by Christianity. Its concerns included personal conversion, holiness, disciplined Christian living, Sabbath observance, family worship, catechesis, prayer, devotional literature, preaching and overall practical application of doctrine. In this respect, Dutch Nadere Reformatie writers were close spiritual relatives of English Puritans. While theological Calvinism emphasized the doctrinal Reformation, Puritanism and the Dutch Further Reformation emphasized carrying that Reformation into everyday Christian life. 

Seventeenth-century Dutch typography developed alongside the visual culture of Dutch Baroque art. The typography was generally more restrained than French ornamental typography, but Dutch books could be extremely elaborate. Typical features included copperplate engraving, elaborate title pages, decorated initials, ornaments and fleurons, mathematical diagrams, maps, scientific illustrations, and dense but carefully organized pages. Dutch publishers were also major producers of atlas and cartographic books. The typography of Dutch maps and atlases became an important part of the country’s international visual identity.

The Dutch Bible — Statenbijbel

One of the most important typographic projects in Dutch history was the Statenbijbel, or States Bible, commissioned by the States General. It was first published in 1637. The Bible Notes were written with specific guidelines for translation established by the Synod of Dort during its eighth session on November 20, 1618.

The four main instructions to the translators were (1) That they always carefully adhere to the original text, and that the manner of writing of the original languages be preserved, as much as the clarity and properties of Dutch speech permit. But in case where the Hebrew or Greek manner of speech was harder than could remain in the text, that they note this in the margin; (2) That they add as few words as possible to complete the meaning of a sentence if it is not expressed fully, and that these words be distinguished from the text with a different font and placed between brackets; (3) That they formulate a short and clear summary for each book and chapter and write this in the margin at the respective locations in the Holy Scriptures; and, (4)That they add a brief explanation providing insight to the translation of unclear passages; but the addition of lessons learned is neither necessary nor advisable.

The Apocryphal books, evident in Catholic editions, were not included in the main text of the Bible because of their lack of biblical canonicity. The Synod was heavily influenced by Calvinistic orthodoxy and writing against Arminian theological concepts.[2]

The Name of God was particularly important. It was noted in the twelfth session that “after the completion of the works of creation/ here for the first time God is given the name IEHOVAH / meaning the independent/ self being/ being the same from eternity to eternity/ and the origin or cause of existence of all things; that is why this name only belongs to God. Remember for all time; wherever you from now on see the word LORD written in capital letters/ that there in Hebrew the word IEHOVAH, or shorter/ IAH is stated.”[3]

“New Dutch Bibles (published in 2004 and 2010) have recently replaced the Statenvertaling as the primary Dutch Bibles in use. Even these translations, written centuries later, use the seventeenth century Statenvertaling as their starting point—attesting to the lasting quality and continuing influence of the work of the Synod of Dordt and the translators.”[4]

The Synod of Dordt met between November 1618 and May 1619. The first issue on the agenda at the Synod was the translation of a new Bible. Johannes Bogerman, the president of the Synod and an expert in biblical languages, brought up the King James Bible as well as Spanish and Italian translations that worked from the original languages, pointing out the framework the Dutch Bible should follow. The delegates unanimously voted to commission the new Bible.

While the commissioning was unanimous, the delegates debated what to do with the apocrypha. Lay people read the apocrypha for centuries before the Reformation, and many Reformed churches accepted the apocryphal texts. But Franciscus Gomarus (the late Arminius’ opponent on the faculty at Leiden), and Jean Diodati, (Beza’s student and an Italian biblical translator), were against it. The apocrypha, they argued, conflicted with scriptures and was dogmatically wrong. After debate, the Synod of Dordt decided that the translators should place the apocrypha at the back of the Bible with a preface warning the reader.

After its initial 1637 publication by Paulus Aertsz van Ravesteyn in Leiden, the Statenvertaling was reprinted twenty-two times before the turn of the eighteenth century. For the next two centuries, the Statenbijbel was the most-owned book in the Netherlands.

Was there an association with the Westminster Assembly in England? Not directly. However, in a Preface to the Notes on the Statenvertaling, in Gothic typeface of the period, we have this statement — “Whereas we are sufficiently assured by the Testimony of many of the Divines of both kingdoms, sitting in the Assembly at Westminster, that the Compleat Translation of the Large Annotations on the Dutch Bible, set forth 1637, will be of great Use and Benefit to these Realms, for the promotion of Piety; And the pains in finishing such a Work exceeding great, Be it Ordered and Ordained by the Lords and Commissioners Assemble in Parliament, for the encouragement of the Undertaker thereof, Theodore Haak. . . . shall have the privilege of printing the said Annotations for the space of fourteen years . . .” (Henry Elsyng, Clerk, 30 March 1648)

During the eighteenth century, Dutch typography continued to be important, although France and England increasingly became dominant in type design. Dutch typefounders nevertheless maintained a strong tradition of type production. 

Notes

1. Digital recreations include DTL Elzevir (1992) and Custodia (2002–06). DTL Elzevir (Gerard Daniels) is based on a study of several cuttings from Christoffel Van Dijck. 

2. For those interested in the theological work of the Synod, the author has published a book, The Five Points Revisited: Calvinism for Today, 2011, which outlines the major points of the Synod. You may contact him at cshanktype@gmail.com for more information.

3. Wikipedia note here. See excerpt below. “The LORD” becomes the type for Jehovah God in the English Bible.

4. https://calvin.edu/centers-institutes/meeter-center/about-the-synod-of-dordt/the-statenvertaling-bible.